What Is The Main Transformation That Occurs During Glycolysis – Figure 1. During meiosis, homologous recombination can produce new combinations of ges as below between similar, but not identical, copies of human chromosome 1.
Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which genetic information is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of double- or single-stranded nucleic acids (usually DNA as in cellular organisms, but can also be RNA in viruses).
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Homologous recombination is widely used by cells to precisely repair damaged DNA breaks that occur on both DNA strands, known as double-strand breaks (DSBs), in a process called homologous recombination repair (HRR).
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Homologous recombination also produces new combinations of DNA sequences during meiosis, the process by which eukaryotes make gamete cells, such as sperm and egg in animals. These new combinations of DNA suppress genetic variation in the offspring, which in turn allows populations to adapt over the course of evolution.
Homologous recombination is also used in horizontal gene transfer to exchange genetic material between different strains and species of bacteria and viruses. Horizontal transfer is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Although homologous recombination varies greatly between organisms and cell types, for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) most forms involve the same basic steps. After a double-strand break, sections of DNA around the 5′ ds of the break are cut in a process called resection. In the step of strand invasion that follows, above 3′ d of the broken DNA molecule “invades” a similar or identical DNA molecule that is not broken. After thread invasion, the further sequence of evts can follow one of the two main paths discussed below (see Models); the DSBR pathway (double strand break repair) or the SDSA pathway (synthesis-depdt strand annealing). The homologous recombination that occurs during DNA repair tds to result in non-crosslinking products, in effect restoring the damaged DNA molecule as it existed before the double-strand break.
Homologous recombination is conserved in all three domains of life as well as in DNA and RNA viruses, suggesting that it is an almost universal biological mechanism. The discovery of ges for homologous recombination in protists—a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms—was interpreted as evidence that homologous recombination appeared early in the evolution of eukaryotes. Because its dysfunction has been strongly associated with an increased susceptibility to several types of cancer, the proteins that facilitate homologous recombination are the subject of active research. Homologous recombination is also used in ge-targeting, a technique for introducing genetic changes into target organisms. For their development of this technique, Mario Capecchi, Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies received the 2007 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine; Caps
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Independently discovered applications to mouse embryonic stem cells, but the highly conserved mechanisms underlying the DSB repair model, including uniform homologous integration of transformed DNA (ge therapy), were first demonstrated in plasmid experiments by Orr-Weaver, Szostack and Rothstein.
In the 1970s–1980s, it led to later experiments using donor nucleases (e.g., I-SceI) to cut chromosomes for genetic engineering of mammalian cells, where non-homologous recombination is more common than in yeast.
In the early 1900s, William Bateson and Reginald Punnett found an exception to one of the principles of inheritance originally described by Gregor Mdel in the 1860s. In contrast to Mdel’s notion that traits are independently varied that are passed from generation to generation – for example, that the color of a cat’s hair and its tail length are inherited independently of each other – Bateson and Punnett nett show that certain joys associated with physical characteristics can be inherited together, or genetically linked.
In 1911, after observing that related traits could be inherited separately, Thomas Hunt Morgan suggested that “crossovers” could occur between related genes.
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Where one of the linked genes physically crosses over to a different chromosome. Two decades later, Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton showed that chromosome crossover occurs during meiosis.
The process of cell division by which spermatozoa and eggs are made. In the same year as McClintock’s discovery, Curt Stern showed that crossover – later called “recombination” – could also occur in somatic cells such as white blood cells and skin cells that divide by mitosis.
In 1947, the microbiologist Joshua Lederberg showed that bacteria – which were assumed to reproduce only asexually by binary fission – are capable of galactic recombination, which is more similar to sexual reproduction. This work established E. coli as a model organism in genetics,
Based on studies in fungi, in 1964 Robin Holliday proposed a model for recombination in meiosis that introduced essential details of how the process can work, including the exchange of material between chromosomes through Holliday junctions.
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In 1983, Jack Szostak and colleagues advanced a model now known as the DSBR pathway, which accounted for observations not explained by the Holliday model.
During the next decade, experiments in Drosophila, budding yeast and mammalian cells led to the emergence of other models of homologous recombination, called SDSA pathways, which are not always dependent on Holliday junctions.
Most of the work after identifying the proteins involved in the process and determining their mechanisms was done by a number of individuals including James Haber, Patrick Sung, Steph Kowalczykowski and others.
Homologous recombination (HR) is essential for cell division in eukaryotes such as plants, animals, fungi and protists. Homologous recombination repairs double-strand breaks in DNA caused by ionizing radiation or DNA-damaging chemicals.
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In addition to DNA repair, homologous recombination also helps produce gamete diversity, when cells divide in meiosis to become specialized gamete cells—sperm or egg cells in animals, ballots or ovules in plants, and spores in fungi. It does this by facilitating chromosomal crossover, in which similar but not identical regions of DNA are exchanged between homologous chromosomes.
These sites are located not randomly on the chromosomes; usually in intergenic promoter regions and preferably in GC-rich domains
These double-strand break sites are often at recombination points, regions in chromosomes that are about 1,000-2,000 base pairs in length and have a high rate of recombination. The absence of a recombination hotspot between two genes on the same chromosome often means that those genes will be inherited by future generations in equal proportion. This suppresses a link between the two geos greater than expected from geos diverging independently during meiosis.
Figure 3. Homologous recombination repair attempts occur in DNA before cell meiosis (M phase shown) during the S and G.
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Double-strand breaks can be repaired by homologous recombination, polymerase theta-mediated joining (TMEJ) or by non-homologous joining (NHEJ).
NHEJ is a DNA repair mechanism that, unlike homologous recombination, does not require a long homologous sequence to drive repair. Whether homologous recombination or NHEJ is used to repair double-strand breaks is largely determined by the phase of the cell cycle. Homologous recombination repairs the DNA before the cell completes meiosis (M phase). It occurs during and shortly after DNA replication, in the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle, where sister chromatids are most readily available.
Compared to homologous chromosomes, which are similar to another chromosome, but often have different alleles, sister chromatids are an ideal model for homologous recombination because they are an identical copy of a giv chromosome. When there is no homologous template available or when the template cannot be accessed due to a defect in homologous recombination, the break is repaired by TMEJ in the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. In contrast to homologous recombination and TMEJ, NHEJ is predominant in the G1 phase of the cell cycle, where the cell is growing but not ready to divide. It is less often after the G
Phase, but retains at least some activity throughout the cell cycle. The mechanisms that regulate homologous recombination and NHEJ during the cell cycle vary greatly between species.
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Cyclin-depdt kinases (CDKs), which modify the activity of other proteins by adding phosphate groups to them (ie, phosphorylate), are important regulators of homologous recombination in eukaryotes.
When DNA replication initiates in budding yeast, the cyclin-depdt kinase Cdc28 initiates homologous recombination by phosphorylating the Sae2 protein.
After being thus activated by the addition of phosphate, Sae2 causes a net cut to be made near a double-strand break in DNA. It is not clear whether the donor nuclease responsible for this cut is Sae2 itself or another protein, Mre11.
This allows a complex of proteins including Mre11, known as the MRX complex, to bind to DNA, and initiate a series of protein-motor reactions that exchange material between two DNA molecules.
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The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin creates a barrier for all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of zymes to their sites of action. To allow homologous recombination (HR) DNA repair, chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP-depdt chromatin remodeling complexes and histone modifying zymes are two predominant factors employed to carry out this remodeling process.
In one of the first steps, the stress-activated protein kinase, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphorylates SIRT6 on serine 10 in response to double-strand breaks or other DNA damage.
This post-translational modification facilitates the mobilization of SIRT6 to sites of DNA damage, and is required for efficient recruitment of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) to DNA breaks and for efficient DSB repair.
PARP1 protein begins to appear at sites of DNA damage in less than a second, with half-maximum accumulation at 1.6 seconds after damage.
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